Between 1820 and 1840 the term “socialism” was coined and reshaped by utopian thinkers in Britain and France. Robert Owen and his followers in Britain were first: in 1827 the Co-operative Magazine used “Socialists” to describe Owen’s co-operative reformers\[1\]. Owen himself spoke of a new “social system” to replace competitive individualism\[2\], laying groundwork for what would soon be called socialism. Meanwhile in France, disciples of Claude Henri de Saint-Simon began using “socialisme” in the early 1830s to contrast with individualisme. A Protestant journal in 1831 urged “ne pas sacrifier la personnalité au socialisme, ni ce dernier à la personnalité” (“not to sacrifice individuality to socialism, nor socialism to individuality”)\[3\]\[4\]. By 1832–33, the Saint-Simonian and Fourierist movements were both being labeled “socialist.” In April 1833, the Fourierist paper La Réforme industrielle even announced a meeting of “socialistes”\[5\]\[6\]. This period also saw Étienne Cabet introduce a communist-utopian vision he termed Icaria. In his 1840 novel Voyage en Icarie, Cabet described an egalitarian society with common property – effectively a form of socialism, though he preferred the word “communist.” His Icarian model rested on “l’égalité absolue et le partage des biens”, an ideal of absolute equality and shared wealth\[7\].

Despite differing doctrines, Owenites, Saint-Simonians, Fourierists, and Cabet’s Icarians all converged on the critique of individualist, industrial-capitalist society and imagined “socialist” alternatives based on cooperation, equality and communal arrangements. However, their uses of “socialism” diverged in emphasis: Owen’s “social system” meant cooperative industrial reform; Saint-Simonians imbued socialisme with quasi-religious and scientific hopes; Fourier’s school envisioned harmonious association in phalanstères; Cabet’s socialism was a democratic communist utopia. These early meanings sometimes competed – e.g. “socialism” could imply moderate association or radical community – but together they transformed the word into a banner for a post- individualist social order.

Timeline of First Uses

Date Movement Source “Socialism” Usage (exact quotation) Meaning / Context

Nov 1827 Owenite (UK) Co-operative Magazine, London\[1\] “the Communionists or Socialists, is, whether it is more beneficial that this capital should be individual or in common?” Co-operators favoring common ownership vs. individual capital.

23 Nov 1831 Saint-Simonian (Fr.) Le Semeur (Protestant weekly)\[3\]\[4\] « … ne pas sacrifier la personnalité au socialisme, ni ce dernier à la personnalité… » ("…not sacrifice individuality to socialism, nor socialism to individuality.") New social principle opposed to selfish individualism (attrib. to Alexandre Vinet).

12 Apr 1833 Fourierist (Fr.) La Réforme industrielle (Fourier’s journal)\[5\]\[6\] « … le mot “socialiste” aurait paru pour la première fois dans la Réforme industrielle de Fourier (n° du 12 avril 1833)… » First French use of “socialist” to denote followers of Fourier’s associative ideals.

Mini-Profiles Link to heading

Robert Owen (1771–1858) Link to heading

Biographical Snapshot: Welsh industrialist turned reformer, Owen became a pioneer of cooperative thought. After successfully running the New Lanark cotton mills on benevolent principles, he pursued grander social reforms. In 1825–1830 he founded utopian communities (e.g. New Harmony in America) to prove his ideas\[2\]\[8\]. Though these experiments failed, Owen’s vision and organizational talent earned him recognition as the “father of British socialism.”

Key Texts (1820–1840): Report to the County of Lanark (1820) outlined his plan for self-sufficient communities. The Social System (a series in the New Harmony Gazette, 1826–27) expounded his cooperative model\[2\]. He also launched journals like The Crisis (1832) to promote labor exchanges and cooperative societies. In 1835 he formed the Association of All Classes of All Nations, by which time “socialism” was widely applied to Owen’s ideas\[9\]\[10\].

Definitional Slant on “Socialism”: Owen’s “socialism” meant the systematic replacement of individual competition with “co-operative and harmonious” arrangements in industry and community. He spoke of a new “Social System” founded on shared property, enlightened education and equality. “The social system is now firmly established,” Owen proclaimed in 1827, “its principles are daily becoming better understood; the natural and easy means of forming communities have been developed by our past experience.”\[2\]\[11\] In Owen’s usage, this nascent socialism equated to rational social organization – often simply called “the social system” – as opposed to the “individual system” of competition.

Later Influence: Owen’s communal plans directly inspired the early British labor movement and co-operative societies. His followers (the Owenites) coined the terms “socialist” and “socialism” in English\[1\]\[9\]. Though Marx later dubbed Owen a “utopian socialist,” Owen’s stress on education, worker co-ops, and communal living shaped later social democratic and communitarian thought.

Claude-Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon (1760–1825) Link to heading

Biographical Snapshot: An aristocrat who survived the French Revolution, Saint-Simon became an original social philosopher. In writings like L’Industrie (1817) and Le Nouveau Christianisme (1825) he proposed to reorder society scientifically by putting productive “industrial” classes first and abolishing hereditary privilege. He died in 1825, but a devout group of young disciples (the Saint-Simonians) carried on his teachings into the 1830s\[12\]\[13\].

Key Texts (1820–1840): Saint-Simon’s last works (e.g. Nouveau Christianisme, 1825) sketched a technocratic “religion” of society. After his death, disciples like Olinde Rodrigues and Barthélemy Prosper Enfantin founded Le Producteur journal (1825–26) to spread his ideas\[14\]\[15\]. They later took over Le Globe newspaper (1830–32), turning it into a daily organ of Saint-Simonian social critique. Also notable is Doctrine de Saint-Simon (1830), a compilation by his followers.

Definitional Slant on “Socialism”: The term “socialisme” emerged among Saint-Simonians as they grappled with individualisme. Their aim was a new social organization based on association and the spiritual elevation of the working class\[16\]\[17\]. One early instance was an 1831 article (attributed to disciple Alexandre Vinet) contrasting personality vs. socialisme. It urged finding a balance: “Il ne faut pas sacrifier la personnalité au socialisme, ni ce dernier à la personnalité”\[3\]\[4\] – i.e. neither individual dignity nor the social good should be forsaken. Here “socialism” implied a moral-collective principle (often aligned with Christian brotherhood) to counter selfish individualism.

Later Influence: Though the Saint-Simonian school split by 1832 amidst internal disputes\[18\]\[19\], it greatly influenced French intellectual life. They popularized concepts of planned economy, large-scale infrastructure (e.g. early ideas for the Suez Canal), and the term “socialisme” itself. Later French socialists like Pierre Leroux acknowledged Saint-Simonian roots in coining the word\[20\]. The movement’s technocratic and religious tone also prefigured late-19th-century reformist socialism.

Charles Fourier (1772–1837) Link to heading

Biographical Snapshot: Fourier was a French social theorist who, in eccentric but profound works (beginning with Théorie des Quatre Mouvements, 1808), imagined transforming society into self-sufficient communities called phalanges (phalanxes). A lifelong bachelor and former clerk, Fourier lived in relative obscurity, supported by loyal friends. By the 1820s, his writings attracted disciples like Just Muiron and Victor Considerant, who championed his ideas of harmonious “Association”\[21\]\[22\].

Key Texts (1820–1840): Fourier’s major treatises include Théorie de l’Unité Universelle (1822) and Le Nouveau Monde Industriel (1829). These outlined a utopia where “attractive labor” replaces drudgery. In 1832 Fourier’s followers launched a journal, La Réforme industrielle ou Le Phalanstère, to publicize plans for actual phalanstery communes\[23\]\[24\]. Victor Considerant’s Exposition abrégée du système Fourier (1834) further systematized Fourierism. By the late 1830s, Fourier’s school identified with the broader socialist current.

Definitional Slant on “Socialism”: Fourier himself did not use “socialism” in his early works – he spoke of “unité” and “harmonie” – but his followers soon embraced the label “socialistes.” In an April 1833 notice, Fourier’s newspaper explicitly addressed “les socialistes” alongside “industrialists,” indicating the term’s adoption for those seeking social reform\[5\]\[6\]. In Fourierist usage, “socialism” meant cooperative association in contrast to competitive individualism – essentially the vision of society organized into phalanx communities. Later, Victor Considerant proudly titled his 1843 manifesto Principes du Socialisme, reflecting Fourierism’s evolution into a leading socialist school. A characteristic quote comes from a critique Fourier’s followers made of Owen: “What is this ‘social system’ of which you speak?... Is it the social system where property is mostly at the disposal of an individual?”\[25\] – highlighting the Fourierist commitment to collective ownership and egalitarian organization as the true social system, i.e. socialism.

Later Influence: Fourier’s ideas of “utopian socialism” influenced not only France but the United States (dozens of short-lived phalanxes were founded in the 1840s). His concept of “attractive labor” and gender and sexual freedoms were ahead of his time, inspiring early feminism. Though Marxists later criticized Fourier, Marx himself hailed Fourier’s “genial” critique of bourgeois marriage. In sum, Fourierism injected into socialism a passionate critique of civilization and a vision of liberating harmony that would recur in socialist and communalist thought.

Étienne Cabet (1788–1856) Link to heading

Biographical Snapshot: Cabet was a French jurist-turned-revolutionary who became a popular utopian socialist author. Exiled to England for republican activism in the 1830s, he encountered Owenite ideas. Returning to France after amnesty in 1840, Cabet published Voyage en Icarie, a novel depicting a communist utopia. He soon led thousands in attempting to realize Icaria in America (departure in 1848)\[26\]\[27\]. Though the Icarian colonies eventually fractured, Cabet remained a father-figure of utopian communism.

Key Texts (1820–1840): Aside from Voyage en Icarie (1840), which was an instant best-seller, Cabet wrote a history of the French Revolution and edited the newspaper Le Populaire. In 1841 he issued Le Vrai Christianisme suivant Jésus-Christ, aligning Icarian communism with Christian ethics. He also penned programmatic pieces like “Mon Credo Communiste” (1841) in Le Populaire. These texts preached egalitarian communism in plain language to French workers.

Definitional Slant on “Socialism”: Cabet favored the term “communiste” for himself, but his Icaria is undeniably a socialist model. In Voyage en Icarie, the narrator discovers a society with no money, no poverty and absolute equality. “Son modèle de société repose sur l’égalité absolue et le partage des biens, des outils de travail et des produits de consommation,” as one summary puts it\[7\]. Cabet presents this community of goods as a democratic, peaceful republic – essentially a vision of socialism as universal community. Notably, Cabet’s fictional Icarian calls himself “communist” in the sense of living in common, but contemporaries grouped Cabet with the other socialist school founders. A representative line from Cabet’s later writings: “égalité absolue et la fraternité conduisent naturellement au communisme des biens” – “absolute equality and brotherhood naturally lead to communism of goods”\[28\]\[29\]. Thus, Cabet’s socialism was of the utopian-communist variety, rooted in moral egalitarianism and critique of capitalist misery.

Later Influence: Cabet’s blend of Christianity and communism greatly influenced French workers in the 1840s; Voyage en Icarie went through many editions and inspired real-world Icarian communities in Illinois, Iowa, and beyond. While those colonies ultimately dissolved by the 1890s amid internal conflicts\[30\]\[31\], they represent one of the longest-lived attempts to practice utopian socialism. Cabet’s egalitarian, gradualist approach also influenced later Christian socialists and the cooperative movement in France.

Annotated Source Excerpts Link to heading

Robert Owen, “The Social System” (Valedictory Address) (New Harmony Gazette, 6 May 1827) – In this farewell speech at New Harmony, Owen reflects on the recent reorganization of his colony, confidently asserting that the “social system” (a term soon synonymous with socialism) has taken root.

“The social system is now firmly established; its principles are daily becoming better understood; the natural and easy means of forming communities have been developed by our past experience. Already eight independent communities of common property and equality have been formed upon the New-Harmony estate…”\[2\]\[11\]
Source: Robert Owen, “Valedictory Address, 6th May 1827,” published in The New-Harmony Gazette (Indiana), 9 May 1827; repr. in Paul Brown, Twelve Months in New Harmony (New York, 1828), p. 103–104. Original available via Internet Archive (New York Public Library copy)\[2\]\[8\]. Owen declares his experiment successful – a foundational usage linking “social system” to nascent socialism.

Le Producteur (Saint-Simonian journal), article “Catholicisme et protestantisme” (Nov 1831) – A Saint-Simonian-associated author (likely Alexandre Vinet) introduces “socialisme” as a needed principle to balance excessive individualism. Here the word appears perhaps for the first time in print in French.

« L’harmonisation des deux faces de la vie doit être le but de tous nos efforts… nous ne devons pas sacrifier la personnalité au socialisme, ni ce dernier à la personnalité. »\[3\]\[4\]
Source: Le Semeur, 23 novembre 1831, p. 1. Quoted in Gabriel Deville, “L’origine des mots ‘socialisme’ et ‘socialiste’,” Revue de l’Histoire des Doctrines Économiques 2.2 (1909), p. 299\[3\]\[4\]. Gallica provides the scan. This early use of “socialisme” (in contrast to personal independence) shows Saint-Simonian thought blending Christian altruism with a new social ideal.

Fourierist commentary (J. Deville on La Réforme industrielle, 12 Apr 1833) – An announcement in Fourier’s newspaper used “socialist” to rally like-minded “industrialists.” Gabriel Deville’s research notes this first emergence of socialiste in Fourierist print.

« …le mot “socialiste” aurait paru pour la première fois dans la Réforme industrielle de Fourier (n° du 12 avril 1833)… »\[5\]
Source: Gabriel Deville, ibid., p. 300\[5\] (citing La Réforme industrielle ou Le Phalanstère, 12 avril 1833, now lost). By spring 1833, French disciples of Fourier openly embraced the label “socialistes,” indicating that the term had gained currency to describe their associative movement.

Étienne Cabet, Voyage en Icarie (1840) – In this utopian novel, the traveler discovers an egalitarian communist society. The passage below (from a modern summary) encapsulates Icaria’s guiding social principle of equality and common benefit – essentially Cabet’s ideal of socialism.

“Son modèle de société repose sur l’égalité absolue et le partage des biens, des outils de travail et des produits de consommation.”\[7\]
Source: Étienne Cabet, Voyage en Icarie, 1st ed. London
\[actually Paris\]
, 1840; 4th ed. Paris: Bureau du Populaire, 1848, p. vii. Quoted in BnF Gallica blog, Allons en Icarie ! (2013)\[7\]. This describes Cabet’s Icaria: a society of “absolute equality” and communal sharing – a blueprint for the communist strain of early socialism. (Cabet himself uses “communisme,” but contemporary readers classed this vision under socialisme.)

Comparative Analysis Link to heading

Early “socialism” was not a monolith – each founding movement introduced the term with unique inflections, yet all grappled with common themes of industrialization, religion, and class. A comparative map of their usages reveals both convergence and conflict:

1. Industrialization and the Social Question: All four movements arose as responses to the dislocations of early industrial capitalism. Owen, Saint-Simonians, Fourier, and Cabet each condemned the competitive individualism and poverty spawned by industrial society\[10\]\[16\]. However, they formulated different cures. Owen, operating within burgeoning British industry, envisioned practical co-operative communities and workplace reforms – his socialism was pragmatic and production-oriented (e.g. labor exchanges, model factories). The Saint-Simonians, witnessing post-Napoleonic industrial growth in France, advocated scientific organization of the economy: banks, canals, and “industrial chiefs” guiding production\[12\]\[17\]. Their “socialisme” thus leaned technocratic and managerial (they coined the slogan “À chacun selon sa capacité, à chaque capacité selon ses œuvres” – reward by merit\[32\]). Fourier, by contrast, reacted to industrial drudgery with a fantastical alternative – agrarian-industrial “harmonies” (phalanges) where labor becomes pleasure. His followers promoted decentralist, experimental communities on the land. And Cabet, alarmed by worker misery in the 1830s, proposed an agrarian communist republic as the answer – literally exiting industrial society for a simplified communal life. Despite these differences, a convergent point was the critique of laissez-faire capitalism’s social ills and a belief that a planned or associationist system could raise the condition of the working masses\[10\]\[16\]. All saw industrialization’s raw competition as something to be tamed by social reorganization – whether through Owen’s cooperatives, Saint-Simonian national planning, Fourier’s phalansteries, or Cabet’s communistic villages.

2. Religion and Morality: Each movement’s “socialism” carried a moral or spiritual dimension, though colored by different theology. Owen, despite his Deist leanings, preached a quasi-secular humanitarianism – he spoke of truth and rational education freeing humanity from superstition. He even declared an epoch of “Mental Independence” from organized religion in 1826\[33\]\[34\]. Thus Owenite socialism was cast as a rational, almost scientific morality (famously, Owen believed character is formed by environment, not sin). The Saint-Simonians, in turn, explicitly framed socialisme as a new Christian-inspired religion: they called their society “the New Christianity” and addressed one another as “brother” and “father.” They sought to replace dry Catholicism with a faith centered on society and a messianic “Saint-Simonian Father” (first Enfantin)\[12\]\[18\]. Therefore, Saint-Simonian usage of socialisme was imbued with spiritual mission – a “religion sociale.” Fourier took a very different tack: he harshly criticized existing religion (especially Catholicism) and invented a cosmology of his own. Yet his vision was passional and almost mystical – describing the universe in harmonic analogies, portraying phalanxes as fulfilling God’s design for human happiness. His followers sometimes presented Fourierism as a scientific truth rather than a religion, but it had an almost occult vibrancy (Fourier spoke of “attractive God” and weird prophecies). Cabet’s socialism explicitly drew on Christian ethics: in Le Vrai Christianisme (1841), he argued true Christianity means equality and community of goods, effectively equating communism with Christ’s teachings. In Voyage en Icarie, the society is morally perfect, with a vague deist worship of Reason and God combined. The common thread is that early socialists couched their projects in moral terms – opposing the greed and selfishness of the old order with ideals of harmony, brotherhood, and altruism. Whether through Owen’s rational benevolence, Saint-Simonian prophetic Christianity, Fourier’s cosmic unity, or Cabet’s Christian communism, each made socialism a moral cause, often quasi-religious, not merely an economic program.

3. Class and Social Organization: The term “socialism” in this era invariably implied a stance on class hierarchy and property. All four movements rejected the existing class stratification but in different registers. Owen did not incite class struggle; rather he appealed to all classes to form “unions of all classes” (indeed his 1835 organization had that name\[9\]). His socialism sought to dissolve class distinctions by cooperation, and he often worked with enlightened industrialists. Saint-Simonians initially opposed hereditary nobility and idle rentiers, extolling productive classes (industrials, scientists, artists)\[12\]\[35\]. However, they were not levelers: they envisaged a meritocratic hierarchy (“to each according to his capacity”) under a supreme directive council\[32\]\[18\]. Some critics (like the 1831 article) worried they’d sacrifice personal liberty to this socialisme absolu\[36\]. Fourier mocked both the bourgeoisie and the proletariat of “Civilization.” He despised the merchant capitalist class but also disdained the uneducated poor – he wanted to recombine classes in the phalanx, where everyone from the wealthiest to the humblest finds a useful role and shares fairly in proceeds (Fourier even allowed a gradation of luxuries for incentive). Hence Fourierist “socialism” was class-collaborationist within the phalanx, but radically anti-bourgeois in rejecting the bourgeois marriage, market, etc. Cabet squarely championed the proletariat: his novel and his activism were aimed at workers. He envisioned an equal citizenry of farmers and artisans with no rich and no poor (Icaria literally has a classless structure). He also advocated peaceful, legal means – in France he urged workers to vote and emigrate rather than revolt. The interplay of class in their rhetoric thus varied: Owen and Fourier sought class harmony in a reorganized context; Saint-Simonians wanted to uplift the poor under enlightened elite guidance; Cabet wanted to abolish classes altogether. By the late 1830s, observers were grouping these ideas under one umbrella – but frictions showed. For instance, Pierre Leroux (who coined socialisme as a doctrine in 1834) distanced himself from what he saw as Saint-Simonian authoritarianism, Fourierist eccentricity, and Owenite materialism\[37\]\[38\]. There was debate whether socialism meant a highly centralized “religion of society” (as per some Saint-Simonians) or a more libertarian community of equals (as per others).

Conflicts and Convergence: Despite quarrels, by 1840 these movements recognized each other as pursuing a common goal – the reorganization of society for the benefit of all, especially the working masses. They converged in opposing “individualisme” and in seeking to “socialize” property and production to some degree. Each contributed elements that later socialism (especially in 1848 and beyond) would absorb: Owen contributed cooperative economics, Saint-Simon contributed planning and the very word socialisme, Fourier contributed utopian imagination of communities, and Cabet contributed the vision of democratic communism. Tellingly, by the end of our period the word “socialism” often encompassed all these utopian currents – a broad banner against both laissez-faire capitalism and orthodox political revolution. Yet the tensions persisted: religion vs. secularism (Cabet’s followers were more secular than his writings; Owen turned atheist later); gradual reform vs. radical change (Owenites and Cabet were relatively gradualist, whereas some Fourierists flirted with revolution in 1848); and authority vs. liberty (Saint-Simonian hierarchy vs. the egalitarian ethos of communism). These early debates foreshadowed splits in later socialism (authoritarian vs libertarian, state planning vs cooperative associations). In sum, 1820–1840 invented “socialism” as a response to industrial capitalist modernity – a word encompassing diverse experiments in social brotherhood. Over these two decades, “socialism” emerged as a new vocabulary of hope and critique, forged by Owenites, Saint-Simonians, Fourierists, and Icarians who, each in their idiom, imagined society “in common” rather than in conflict. Their legacies, convergent in aim if not method, set the stage for the more unified socialist movements of the later 19th century.

Bibliography Link to heading

Primary Sources (1820–1840):

Brown, Paul. Twelve Months in New Harmony. New York: n.p., 1828. (Contains Robert Owen’s 1827 “Valedictory Address” reprinted from the New-Harmony Gazette\[2\]\[8\].)
Cabet, Étienne. Voyage en Icarie. 1st ed. London \[Paris\], 1840; 4th ed. Paris: Bureau du Populaire, 1848. (Utopian novel describing a communist egalitarian society\[7\].)
Le Semeur. Paris, 23 novembre 1831. “Catholicisme et protestantisme,” unsigned article (attrib. to Alexandre Vinet). (Earliest use of socialisme in French: « ne pas sacrifier la personnalité au socialisme… »\[3\].)
La Réforme Industrielle ou Le Phalanstère. Paris, 12 avril 1833. (Fourierist weekly; first to print the term socialiste in announcement of a meeting\[5\].)
Saint-Simon, Henri (and Saint-Simonian School). Doctrine de Saint-Simon. Paris: Au Bureau de l’Organisateur, 1830. (Compilation of Saint-Simon’s ideas by his disciples.)
Owen, Robert. The Social System. In The New Harmony Gazette, vol. 2 (Nov 1826–Mar 1827). (Owen’s articles expounding the “Social System” of communal cooperation.)
Note: The above primary texts are accessible via Gallica, Internet Archive, or Marxists.org as indicated in citations.

Secondary Sources:

Beecher, Jonathan. Victor Considerant and the Rise and Fall of French Romantic Socialism. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 2001. (Background on Fourierism and the term socialisme in 1830s.)
Deville, Gabriel. “L’origine des mots ‘socialisme’ et ‘socialiste’.” Revue d’Histoire des Doctrines Économiques et Sociales 2.2 (1909): 289–306. (Historical research on first appearances of the terms\[5\]\[6\].)
Harrison, J. F. C. Robert Owen and the Owenites in Britain and America. New York: Norton, 1969. (Details Owen’s role in coining “socialist” in 1827 and Owenite ideology.)
Mendes, Véronique. “Voyage en Icarie: Jeunesse et conflits de générations, 1848–1898.” Siècles 28 (2008): 37–58. (On Icarian communities in America; context for Cabet’s ideas\[26\]\[39\].)
Pilbeam, Pamela. French Socialists before Marx: Workers, Women, and the Social Question in France. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s Univ. Press, 2000. (Covers Saint-Simonians, Fourierists, and others, with discussion of terminology.)
Taylor, Keith. The Political Ideas of the Utopian Socialists. London: Frank Cass, 1982. (Analyzes Owen’s, Saint-Simon’s, Fourier’s, and Cabet’s doctrines, including their usage of “socialism.”)
Thomson, David. “Saint-Simonianism and the Origins of the Word ‘Socialisme’.” Journal of the History of Ideas 17, no. 1 (1956): 72–78. (Scholarly note on how socialisme was first used in the 1830s.)
Vert, Anne. Étienne Cabet: révolutionnaire et communiste. Paris: L’Harmattan, 1981. (Biography of Cabet, with focus on Voyage en Icarie and his concept of communisme/socialisme.)

\[1\] Co Operative Magazine And Monthly Herald 1827 11 The First Documented Use Of ‘socialist’ In The Oxford English Dictionary Is In A Letter In November 1827 Contents : Co-operative Magazine : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive

https://archive.org/details/co-operative-magazine-and-monthly-herald-1827-11-the-first-documented-use-of-soc

\[2\] \[8\] \[11\] \[25\] Paul Brown, "Twelve Months in New Harmony" (1827) - The Libertarian Labyrinth

https://www.libertarian-labyrinth.org/utopian-and-scientific/paul-brown-twelve-months-in-new-harmony-1827/

\[3\] \[4\] \[37\] \[38\] L'ORIGINE DES MOTS “SOCIALISME„ ET “SOCIALISTE„

https://legalform.blog/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/grucc88nberg-socialisme.pdf

\[5\] \[6\] Encyclopédie anarchiste/Socialisme - Société des nations - Wikisource

https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die_anarchiste/Socialisme_-_Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_nations

\[7\] Allons en Icarie ! | Blog | Gallica

https://gallica.bnf.fr/accueil/fr/html/allons-en-icarie

\[9\] \[10\] Origins of Socialism

https://ideas.repec.org/h/pal/palchp/978-1-349-24018-0_1.html

\[12\] \[13\] \[14\] \[15\] \[16\] \[17\] \[18\] \[19\] \[20\] \[32\] \[35\] Hippolyte Carnot - 1801-1888 - La séduction du saint-simonisme (1826-1830) - CNRS Éditions

https://books.openedition.org/editionscnrs/17724?lang=en

\[21\] Considérant, Victor Prosper | FactMonster

https://www.factmonster.com/encyclopedia/social-science/bios/government/considerant-victor-prosper

\[22\] 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Considérant, Victor Prosper

https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Consid%C3%A9rant,_Victor_Prosper

\[23\] \[24\] Victor Considerant, son œuvre (suite) - Persée

https://www.persee.fr/doc/r1848_1155-8814_1908_num_5_27_1905

\[26\] \[27\] \[30\] \[31\] \[39\] Voyage en Icarie. Jeunesse et conflits de générations, 1848-1898

https://journals.openedition.org/siecles/599?lang=en

\[28\] \[29\] Biographie d'ÉTIENNE CABET (1788-1856)

https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/etienne-cabet/

\[33\] \[34\] Remembering a Grimly Prophetic July 4